Federal Discrimination Law: full Table of Contents

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Table of Contents

Foreword

Chapter 1 - Introduction

• 1.1. Nature and Scope of this Publication
• 1.2 'HREOC' and the 'Australian Human Rights Commission'
• 1.3 What is 'Unlawful Discrimination'?
  • 1.3.1 ‘Unlawful discrimination’ defined
  • 1.3.2 Distinguishing ‘unlawful discrimination’ from ‘ILO 111 discrimination’ and ‘human rights’ under the HREOC Act
    • (a) ‘ILO 111 discrimination’
    • (b) ‘Human rights’
      
• 1.4 The Brandy Decision and HREOC's Former Hearing Function
  • 1.4.1 The scheme prior to 1995
  • 1.4.2 Brandy v HREOC
  • 1.4.3 Human Rights Legislation Amendment Act (No 1) 1999 (Cth)

Chapter 2 – The Age Discrimination Act

• 2.1
  Introduction to the ADA
  • 2.1.1 Background
  • 2.1.2 Structure of the ADA
  • 2.1.3 Application of the ADA
  • 2.1.4 Offences
• 2.2 Age Discrimination Defined
  • 2.2.1 ‘Age’ defined
  • 2.2.2 Direct discrimination
  • 2.2.3 Indirect discrimination
  • 2.2.4 The ‘dominant reason’ test
  • 2.2.5 Age discrimination and disability discrimination
  • 2.2.6 Discrimination against a relative or associate on the basis of age
• 2.3 Proscribed Areas of Age Discrimination
  • 2.3.1 Discrimination in employment and occupation
    • (a) Scope of the prohibition
    • (b) ‘Inherent requirements’ exemption
      
  • 2.3.2 Discrimination in areas of public life other than employment
    • (a) Access to goods, services and facilities
    • (b) Education
    • (c) Accommodation
    • (d) Access to premises
    • (e) Land
    • (f) Requests for information on which unlawful age discrimination might be based
    • (g) Administration of Commonwealth laws and programs
• 2.4 Ancillary Liability
• 2.5 Victimisation
• 2.6 General Exemptions Under the ADA
  • 2.6.1 ‘Positive discrimination’
  • 2.6.2 Exemption for youth wages
  • 2.6.3 Exemption relating to superannuation, insurance and credit
  • 2.6.4 Exemption for charities, religious and voluntary bodies
  • 2.6.5 Exemption in relation to health
  • 2.6.6 Exemption relating to direct compliance with laws, orders of courts including taxation legislation and social security legislation
  • 2.6.7 Exemption in relation to migration and citizenship

Chapter 3 – The Racial Discrimination Act

• 3.1 Introduction to the RDA
  • 3.1.1 Scope of the RDA
    • (a) The prohibition on discrimination in s 9
    • (b) The right to equality before the law in s 10
    • (c) The interface between ss 9 and 10
  • 3.1.2 Other unlawful acts and offences
  • 3.1.3 Interaction between RDA, State, Territory and other Commonwealth Laws
    • (a) Impact of s 10 on enjoyment of rights
    • (b) Impact of s 10 on discriminatory State laws
    • (c) Impact of s 10 on discriminatory Territory laws
    • (d) Impact of s 10 on discriminatory Commonwealth laws
    • (e) Impact of s 9 on State laws
    • (f) The RDA does not invalidate State laws that promote the objects of ICERD
  • 3.1.4 Constitutionality
    • (a) The RDA is supported by the external affairs power
    • (b) Part IIA of the RDA does not infringe the implied right of freedom of political communication
      
• 3.2 Racial Discrimination Defined
  • 3.2.1 Grounds of discrimination
    • (a) Race
    • (b) Ethnic origin
    • (c) National origin
• 3.2.2 Direct discrimination under the RDA
  • (a) Section 9(1)
    • (i) Proving the elements of s 9(1)
    • (ii) Racist remark as an act of discrimination
    • (iii) ‘Based on’ and intention to discriminate
  • (b) Prohibitions in specific areas of public life
  • (c) Drawing inferences of racial discrimination
    
• 3.2.3 Indirect discrimination under the RDA
  • (a) Background
  • (b) The relationship between ‘direct’ and ‘indirect’ discrimination
  • (c) Defining the term, condition or requirement
  • (d) Not reasonable in the circumstances
  • (e) Ability to comply with a requirement or condition
    
• 3.2.4 Interference with the recognition, enjoyment or exercise of human rights or fundamental freedoms on an equal footing
  • (a) Human rights and fundamental freedoms defined
  • (b) Equal footing
    
• 3.3 Exceptions
  • 3.3.1 Special measures
    • (a) Gerhardy v Brown
    • (b) Applying Gerhardy
      
  • 3.3.2 Reasonable justification
• 3.4 Racial Hatred
  • 3.4.1 Background
  • 3.4.2 Significance of term racial hatred
  • 3.4.3 Persons to whom the provisions apply
  • 3.4.4 Causation and intention to offend
  • 3.4.5 Reasonably likely to offend, insult, humiliate or intimidate
    • (a) Objective standard
    • (b) Subjective effect on applicant
    • (c) Reasonable victim test
    • (d) Context
    • (e) Truth or falsity of statement not determinative of offensiveness
      
  • 3.4.6 Otherwise than in private
  • 3.4.7 Exemptions
    • (a) Onus of proof
    • (b) A broad or narrow interpretation?
    • (c) Reasonably and in good faith
      • (i) Objective and subjective elements
      • (ii) Context and artistic works
    • (d) Section 18D(a): artistic works
    • (e) Section 18D(b): Statement, publication, debate or discussion made or held for any genuine academic, artistic, scientific purpose or other genuine purpose in the public interest
    • (f) Section 18D(c): Fair and accurate reports in the public interest and fair comment on matter of public interest where comment is a genuinely held belief
      
• 3.5 Victimisation
• 3.6 Vicarious Liability

Chapter 4 – The Sex Discrimination Act

• 4.1 Introduction to the SDA
  • 4.1.1 Scope of the SDA
  • 4.1.2 Limited application provisions
    • (a) Application of the SDA to external Territories
    • (b) Availability of the SDA to male complainants
    • (c) Marital status discrimination and giving effect to CEDAW under s 9(10)
• 4.2 Direct Discrimination Under the SDA
  • 4.2.1 Causation, intention and motive
  • 4.2.2 Direct sex discrimination
  • 4.2.3 Direct marital status discrimination
  • 4.2.4 Direct pregnancy discrimination
    • (a) Relationship between pregnancy and sex discrimination
    • (b) Maternity leave – direct discrimination on basis of characteristic that appertains generally to pregnancy
      
  • 4.2.5 Discrimination on the ground of family responsibilities
• 4.3 Indirect Discrimination Under the SDA
  • 4.3.1 Defining the ‘condition, requirement or practice’
  • 4.3.2 Disadvantaging
  • 4.3.3 Reasonableness
  • 4.3.4 The relationship between ‘direct’ and ‘indirect’ discrimination
• 4.4 Special Measures Under the SDA
• 4.5 Areas of Discrimination
  • 4.5.1 Provision of services and qualifying bodies
  • 4.5.2 Clubs
• 4.6 Sexual Harassment
  • 4.6.1 Conduct of a sexual nature
  • 4.6.2 Unwelcome conduct
  • 4.6.3 Single incidents
  • 4.6.4 The ‘reasonable person’ test
  • 4.6.5 Sexual harassment as a form of sex discrimination
  • 4.6.6 Sex-based harassment and sex discrimination
• 4.7 Exemptions
  • 4.7.1 Services for members of one sex
  • 4.7.2 Voluntary bodies
  • 4.7.3 Acts done under statutory authority
  • 4.7.4 Competitive sporting activity
• 4.8 Victimisation
• 4.9 Vicarious Liability
  • 4.9.1 Onus of Proof
  • 4.9.2 ‘In connection with’ employment
  • 4.9.3 ‘All reasonable steps’
  • 4.9.4 Vicarious liability for victimisation
• 4.10 Aiding or Permitting an Unlawful Act

Chapter 5 – The Disability Discrimination Act

• 5.1 Introduction to the DDA
  • 5.1.1 Scope of the DDA
  • 5.1.2 Limited application provisions and constitutionality
  • 5.1.3 Retrospectivity of the DDA
  • 5.1.4 Jurisdiction over decisions made overseas
• 5.2 Disability Discrimination Defined
  • 5.2.1 ‘Disability’ defined
    • (a) Identifying the disability with precision
    • (b) Distinction between a disability and its manifestations
  • 5.2.2 Direct discrimination under the DDA
    • (a) Issues of causation, intention and knowledge
      • (i) Causation and intention
      • (ii) Knowledge
    • (b) The ‘comparator’ under s 5 of the DDA
      • (i) Early approaches
      • (ii) The Purvis decision
      • (iii) Applying Purvis
      • (iv) The applicant as his or her own comparator?
    • (c) ‘Accommodation’ under s 5(2) of the DDA
  • 5.2.3 Indirect discrimination under the DDA
    • (a) The relationship between ‘direct’ and ‘indirect’ discrimination
    • (b) Defining the ‘requirement or condition’
      • (i) Distinguishing the requirement from the inherent features of a service
      • (ii) Imposition of a requirement or condition
      • (iii) Requirement ‘imposed’ by employers
    • (c) Comparison with persons without the disability
    • (d) Reasonableness
      • (i) Education cases
      • (ii) Employment cases
      • (iii) Access to premises
      • (iv) Goods and services
    • (e) Inability to comply with a requirement or condition
      • (i) Serious disadvantage
      • (ii) Practicality and dignity
  • 5.2.4 Other grounds: Aids, assistants and assistance animals
    • (a) Interaction between ss 5 - 9
    • (b) Assistance animals
      • (i) Guide and hearing dogs
      • (ii) Other types of assistance animals
        
  • 5.2.5 Disability standards
    • (a) Transport Standards
    • (b) Education Standards
    • (c) Proposed access to premises standards
      
  • 5.2.6 Harassment
• 5.3 Areas of Discrimination
  • 5.3.1 Employment (s 15)
    • (a) Meaning of ‘employment’
    • (b) ‘Arrangements made for the purposes of determining who should be offered employment’
    • (c) ‘Benefits associated with employment’ and ‘any other detriment’
    • (d) Inherent requirements
      • (i) Meaning of ‘inherent requirements’
      • (ii) Extent to which an employer must assist an aggrieved person to be able to carry out inherent requirements
      • (iii) ‘Unable to carry out’
      • (iv) Imputed disabilities
  • 5.3.2 Education
    • (a) Changes made to s 22 and availability of defence of unjustifiable hardship
    • (b) ‘Educational authority’
    • (c) Education as a service?
      
  • 5.3.3 Access to premises
  • 5.3.4 Provision of goods, services and facilities
    • (a) Defining a ‘service’
      • (i) Council planning decisions
      • (ii) Prisons as a service
      • (iii) Other disputed services
    • (b) ‘Refusal’ of a service
    • (c) Delay in providing a service or making a facility available
    • (d) Ownership of facilities not necessary for liability 80
• 5.4 Ancillary Liability
  • 5.4.1 Vicarious liability
  • 5.4.2 Permitting an unlawful act
• 5.5 Unjustifiable Hardship and Other Exemptions
  • 5.5.1 Unjustifiable hardship
    • (a) ‘More than just hardship’
    • (b) ‘Any persons concerned’
    • (c) Other factors
      
  • 5.5.2 Other exemptions to the DDA
    • (a) Annuities, insurance and superannuation
    • (b) Defence force
    • (c) Compliance with a prescribed law
    • (d) Special measures
      
• 5.6 Victimisation
  • (a) Test for causation
  • (b) Threatens to subject to any detriment

Chapter 6 – Practice and Procedure

• 6.1 Introduction
  • 6.1.1 Role of the special purpose commissioners as amicus curiae
• 6.2 Parties to a complaint to HREOC
  • 6.2.1 Complainants
    • (a) ‘A person aggrieved’
    • (b) Bodies corporate
      • (i) Can a body corporate be a ‘person aggrieved’?
      • (ii) Determining whether the ‘person aggrieved’ is the body corporate, its members or its directors
    • (c) Unincorporated bodies
    • (d) Complaints in respect of deceased persons
      
  • 6.2.2 Respondents
  • 6.2.3 Representative complaints to HREOC
• 6.3 Interim Injunctions
  • 6.3.1 Section 46PP of the HREOC Act
  • 6.3.2 Principles governing determination of whether to grant an injunction
    • (a) Serious issue to be tried
    • (b) Balance of convenience
      
  • 6.3.3 Ex parte injunctions
  • 6.3.4 Types of orders that the Court can make under s 46PP
  • 6.3.5 Duration of relief granted under s 46PP and the time period in which such relief must be sought
• 6.4 Election of Jurisdiction
• 6.5 HREOC Act is an Exclusive Regime
• 6.6 Scope of Applications Made Under s 46PO of the HREOC Act to the FMC and Federal Court
  • 6.6.1 Parties
    • (a) Applicants
    • (b) Respondents
    • (c) Representative proceedings in the Federal Court
      
  • 6.6.2 Relationship between application and terminated complaint
  • 6.6.3 Validity of termination notice
  • 6.6.4 Pleading claims in addition to unlawful discrimination
• 6.7 Relevance of Other Complaints to HREOC
  • 6.7.1 ‘Repeat complaints’ to HREOC
  • 6.7.2 Evidence of other complaints to HREOC
• 6.8 Pleading Direct and Indirect Discrimination as Alternatives
• 6.9 Applications for Extension of Time
  • 6.9.1 Relevance of nature of jurisdiction
  • 6.9.2 Principles to be applied
    • (a) Need for an acceptable explanation for delay
    • (b) Prejudice arising from the delay
    • (c) No arguable case
      
  • 6.9.3 Examples of where extension of time has been granted
• 6.10 State Statutes of Limitation
• 6.11 Interim Injunctions Under s 46PO(6) of the HREOC Act
• 6.12 Applications for Summary Disposal
  • 6.12.1 Changes to rules concerning summary disposal of proceedings
    • (a) Summary dismissal
    • (b) Summary judgment
    • (c) Purpose of the changes to the summary disposal provisions
      
  • 6.12.2 Principles governing determination of whether there are ‘no reasonable prospects’
  • 6.12.3 Onus/material to be considered by the Court
  • 6.12.4 Examples of matters where the power has been exercised
  • 6.12.5 Frivolous or vexatious proceedings and abuse of process
  • 6.12.6 Dismissal of application due to non-appearance of applicant
• 6.13 Application for Dismissal for Want of Prosecution
• 6.14 Application for Suppression Order
• 6.15 Interaction Between the FMC and the Federal Court
  • 6.15.1 Transfer of matters from the Federal Court to the FMC
  • 6.15.2 Transfer of matters from the FMC to the Federal Court
• 6.16 Appeals from the FMC to the Federal Court
  • 6.16.1 Nature of appeals
  • 6.16.2 Extension of time for filing appeals
    • (a) Principles to be applied
    • (b) Examples of cases in which applications for leave to appeal out of time have been made
      
• 6.17 Approach to Statutory Construction of Unlawful Discrimination Laws
• 6.18 Standard of Proof in Discrimination Matters
• 6.19 Miscellaneous Procedural and Evidentiary Matters
  • 6.19.1 Request for copy of transcript
  • 6.19.2 Unrepresented litigants
  • 6.19.3 Representation by unqualified person
  • 6.19.4 Consideration of fresh evidence out of time
  • 6.19.5 Statements made at HREOC conciliation
  • 6.19.6 Security for costs
  • 6.19.7 Applicability of s 347 of the Legal Profession Act 2004 (NSW) to federal discrimination cases
  • 6.19.8 Judicial immunity from suit under federal discrimination law
  • 6.19.9 Adjournment pending decision of Legal Aid Commission
  • 6.19.10 Appointment of litigation guardians under the FMC Rules
  • 6.19.11 ‘No case’ submission

Chapter 7 – Damages and Remedies

• 7.1 Section 46PO(4) of the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission Act 1986 (Cth)
• 7.2 Damages
  • 7.2.1 General approach to damages
    • (a) Torts principles apply
    • (b) Multiple causes of injury/loss
    • (c) Hurt, humiliation and distress
    • (d) Aggravated and exemplary damages
    • (e) A finding of discrimination is necessary
  • 7.2.2 Damages under the RDA
    • (a) Carr v Boree Aboriginal Corporation
    • (b) McMahon v Bowman
    • (c) Horman v Distribution Group
    • (d) San v Dirluck Pty Ltd
    • (e) Baird v Queensland
    • (f) Gama v Qantas Airways Ltd
    • (g) Silberberg v The Builders Collective of Australia Inc
    • (h) Campbell v Kirstenfeldt
    • (i) House v Queanbeyan Community Radio Station
      
  • 7.2.3 Damages under the SDA generally
    • (a) Font v Paspaley Pearls Pty Ltd
    • (b) Grulke v KC Canvas Pty Ltd
    • (c) Cooke v Plauen Holdings Pty Ltd
    • (d) Song v Ainsworth Game Technology Pty Ltd
    • (e) Escobar v Rainbow Printing Pty Ltd (No 2)
    • (f) Mayer v Australian Nuclear Science & Technology Organisation
    • (g) Evans v National Crime Authority
    • (h) Rispoli v Merck Sharpe & Dohme (Australia) Pty Ltd
    • (i) Kelly v TPG Internet Pty Ltd
    • (j) Gardner v All Australia Netball Association Ltd
    • (k) Ho v Regulator Australia Pty Ltd
    • (l) Howe v Qantas Airways Ltd
    • (m) Dare v Hurley
    • (n) Fenton v Hair & Beauty Gallery Pty Ltd
    • (o) Rankilor v Jerome Pty Ltd
    • (p) Iliff v Sterling Commerce (Australia) Pty Ltd
  • 7.2.4 Damages in sexual harassment cases
    • (a) Gilroy v Angelov
    • (b) Elliott v Nanda
    • (c) Shiels v James
    • (d) Johanson v Blackledge
    • (e) Horman v Distribution Group
    • (f) Wattle v Kirkland
    • (g) Aleksovski v Australia Asia Aerospace Pty Ltd
    • (h) McAlister v SEQ Aboriginal Corporation
    • (i) Beamish v Zheng
    • (j) Bishop v Takla
    • (k) Hughes v Car Buyers Pty Ltd
    • (l) Trainor v South Pacific Resort Hotels Pty Ltd
    • (m) Phillis v Mandic
    • (n) Frith v The Exchange Hotel
    • (o) San v Dirluck Pty Ltd
    • (p) Cross v Hughes
    • (q) Hewett v Davies
    • (r) Lee v Smith
    • (s) Lee v Smith (No 2)
  • 7.2.5 Damages under the DDA
    • (a) Barghouthi v Transfield Pty Ltd
    • (b) Haar v Maldon Nominees
    • (c) Travers v New South Wales
    • (d) McKenzie v Department of Urban Services
    • (e) Oberoi v Human Rights & Equal Opportunity Commission
    • (f) Sheehan v Tin Can Bay Country Club
    • (g) Randell v Consolidated Bearing Company (SA) Pty Ltd
    • (h) Forbes v Commonwealth
    • (i) McBride v Victoria (No 1)
    • (j) Bassanelli v QBE Insurance
    • (k) Darlington v CASCO Australia Pty Ltd
    • (l) Clarke v Catholic Education Office
    • (m) Power v Aboriginal Hostels Ltd
    • (n) Trindall v NSW Commissioner of Police
    • (o) Hurst and Devlin v Education Queensland
    • (p) Drury v Andreco Hurll Refractory Services Pty Ltd (No 4)
    • (q) Wiggins v Department of Defence – Navy
    • (r) Vickers v The Ambulance Service of NSW
    • (s) Hurst v Queensland
    • (t) Rawcliffe v Northern Sydney Central Coast Area Health Service
    • (u) Forest v Queensland Health
    • (v) Gordon v Commonwealth
• 7.3 Apologies
• 7.4 Declarations
• 7.5 Orders Directing a Respondent Not to Repeat or Continue Conduct
• 7.6 Other Remedies

Chapter 8 – Costs Awards

• 8.1 Introduction
  • 8.1.1 General discretion applies
  • 8.1.2 Power to limit and set costs
    • (a) The rationale for the rule
    • (b) Factors to consider when determining whether or not to make an order limiting costs
  • 8.1.3 Limitation on amount of costs that can be awarded in the Federal Court
  • 8.1.4 Scale of costs in FMC proceedings
• 8.2 Usual Principles of Costs to Apply
• 8.3 Factors Considered
  • 8.3.1 Where there is a public interest element
    • (a) What is a ‘public interest element’
    • (b) Cases in which the public interest element has been held to be sufficient to depart from the usual costs rule
    • (c) Cases in which the public interest element has been held not to be sufficient to depart from the usual costs rule
  • 8.3.2 Unrepresented applicants
  • 8.3.3 The successful party should not lose the benefit of their victory
  • 8.3.4 Courts should be slow to award costs at an early stage
  • 8.3.5 Unmeritorious claims and conduct which unnecessarily prolongs proceedings
  • 8.3.6 Applicant only partially successful
• 8.4 Applications for Indemnity Costs
  • 8.4.1 General principles on indemnity costs
  • 8.4.2 Offers of compromise
    • (a) Calderbank offers in unlawful discrimination cases
• 8.5 Application of s 47 of the Legal Aid Commission Act 1979 (NSW) to Human Rights Cases in the FMC