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Listening Tour Report A report of the Listening Tour consultations in 2007-08

 

3 Theme One - Economic Independence for Women

• 3.1 What is this chapter about?
• 3.2 Gender pay gap
• 3.3 Superannuation and retirement savings
• 3.4 Low paid work
• 3.5 Women's workforce participation
• 3.6 Women and leadership
• 3.7 Sole parents and Welfare to Work
• 3.8 Housing
• 3.9 Education, skills development and training
• 3.10 Bibliography

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3.1 What is this chapter about?

I'm a mother who has been out of the paid workforce for two years and will probably be for the next 4 years, until my children are ready for pre-school. My return to work will probably be on a part-time basis and I will probably have to re-start my career after so many years out so I don't expect that I will earn very much. I never thought this would be the case - I studied for many years, earned a higher degree, worked overseas and then started my family...I can't see how, after this time out of the workforce, my earnings will ever come close to my partner's. I dread to think of how I will ever manage if I have to rely upon my meagre superannuation contributions in retirement. 4

Achieving economic independence for women has been at the core of the vision for gender equality across the globe. Economic independence is about expanding the capacity of women to make genuine choices about their lives through full and equal participation in all spheres of life. It is about recognising women's work, paid and unpaid, as valuable, both socially and economically. It is about having policies and systems that value and celebrate women's contributions, and reflect the reality of women's lives.

Currently, women working full-time earn 16 per cent less than men who are working full-time. 5 The gender pay gap is even greater when women's part-time and casual earnings are considered, with women earning two thirds what men earn overall. 6 The reasons for this pay gap are complex. Women are more likely to be working under minimum employment conditions and be engaged in low paid, casual and part time work. 7 Australian women are particularly over-represented in industries with high levels of casual work such as retail, hospitality and personal services. 8

The gender pay gap has a number of critical flow-on effects. Pay inequity is often cited as a major factor determining how paid work and family responsibilities are shared. Women, having earned less than men and carried the lion's share of unpaid work, have significantly less retirement savings compared to men. Current superannuation payouts for women are one third of those for men. 9 Almost 50 per cent of women aged 45 to 59 have $8000 or less in superannuation savings. 10

By focusing on economic independence for women, the Commissioner sought to understand how contemporary Australian women are faring in various aspects of their financial lives. Do women feel financially secure? Does this change over the lifecycle? How do these experiences vary amongst different groups of women? Most importantly, what can be done to ensure financial security for women?

This chapter contains a summary of the key issues raised during Listening Tour under the theme of Economic Independence for Women.

 

3.2 Gender pay gap

 

3.2.1 What we heard

Participants in the Listening Tour largely recognised closing the gender pay gap as central to achieving economic independence for women. A number of points were raised under this issue, including: the overrepresentation of women in low paid industries; the experiences of women working in male dominated industries; women's experiences of individual negotiations of pay; and the impact of pay inequity on personal decisions.

Work that is characterised as 'women's work' is undervalued

A key problem underpinning the theme of economic independence for women is the lack of value ascribed to the work that women do. Although Listening Tour participants cited examples of more women entering non traditional fields, many participants pointed to the fact that what is seen as 'women's work' remains undervalued both in monetary terms and social status.

One participant in the Canberra Community Consultation said:

I work in vocational education. Here the TAFE system in the ACT and in Australia is gendered. Women choose to do courses that mostly women study - aged care, beauty, community care, hairdressing, mental health work etc. Most of these are lowly paid too. We need more effort to get women into the non-traditional areas. 11

A woman working in the child care sector drew attention to the complex set of skills required in her work and the social benefit of high quality care for children. She pointed out that the pay and status of workers in this sector fails to acknowledge the skills required or the benefits returned:

The amount of pay is incredibly low and the work is undervalued. Caring for children should be valued in our society but we are invisible. 12

Women in the female dominated aged care sector also told us that there was little prospect of any pay progression, however long they worked or gained experience. 13

Some participants said that in female dominated industries, men had a greater chance of promotion, further contributing to pay inequity within those industries. 14 One participant used the nursing sector as an example, pointing out that while men and women are paid the same, men "track up the ladder quicker into management which pays more". 15

One woman sought to explain why women are over-represented in low paid industries:

Women are clustered in lower-paid jobs due to educational choices, perceptions of 'women's work', and women's family and caring responsibilities. The average weekly earnings of men and women will not be the same unless men and women share family responsibilities equally; and this will be a long time coming. 16

A woman working in a male dominated industry remarked upon the social attitudes that underpin pay inequity, pointing out the stereotype that women "can't earn more money than a bloke" and also that women tend to undervalue themselves, thinking "I can't do as much as a bloke so I shouldn't earn as much." 17

As a solution to closing the gender pay gap one participant at the Adelaide community consultation said that "part of it is changing the idea of what sort of work boys do and what sort of work girls do". 18

There are still significant barriers to women working in male dominated industries

Both women and men working in male dominated industries recognised the barriers facing women working in these industries, based on assumptions about what is 'women's work' and what is 'men's work'.

One woman spoke of her experience working in a male dominated industry:

I think there is a big difference in the [mining] industry in terms of jobs for women and jobs for men. You don't see any women working in hydrators or operations. Men still have the mindset that this is really a job for men. They will say, "You don't want to do this". I applied for a job in plant services and they just took me out of the running because they thought you don't really want to do that. 19

Another woman noted the physical features of her workplace as gendered, pointing out that there is a "huge" amenities block for the men and a "tiny cubicle" for the women. 20

A man working in a male dominated industry described how certain expectations made his a "male" workplace, including the view that "boys do it better" and "that you've got to be 6 foot 2, and size 14 shoes" to do the job. 21

A male participant working in the banking and financial sector argued that it is women's lesser commitment to the job that explains the under-representation of women in senior positions:

What proportion of women would find banking and finance something they want to do over a lifetime? The girls, they learn the skills from the business they're in, and then they go away and travel. How many are committed enough to be doing the books unless they're in a really good role that is interesting? The industry we are in can be pretty boring. From a male perspective is there a greater incentive to continue to earn and progress in the career train versus different drivers for women. 22

In response to a question about whether the structure of work presents a barrier to women's participation one male participant argued that it did not:

[I]t's an industry thing, perhaps because [financial work] interests males more than females...I don't think you can get away from women being more interested in nurturing etcetera and men more interested in figures...The girls are good on the front line, that's where we make our money. They have strengths that males just don't have. 23

Women are not faring well with individual negotiations for pay and conditions

The gendered difference in negotiation of pay and conditions was raised as a contributing factor towards pay inequity. Participants commented on women's tendency to undervalue themselves and trade off pay for family friendly conditions, as well as the undervaluing of women employees by their employers. 24

One woman commented on the different negotiation styles of men and women:

Women are conditioned to put themselves as the last option, always putting themselves last. It is a huge issue to assert yourself around money. Men communicate with arrogance, but women are emotive and it doesn't work in the negotiating room. We do undervalue ourselves. But if you do negotiate well you are up against someone who doesn't value you, usually a man and so you still lose out. Women use evidence to build a case but men just go in with themselves. 25

Employers also recognised this matter as an issue for closing the gender pay gap, although some note that it is changing for younger women:

Men are [more] likely than women to come out and say I want more money. Women are more likely to hope they get praise or a pay rise. Unless they talk to each other and realize that it isn't fair and others are getting more it doesn't get fixed. Younger women are better at it. 26

Some people pointed to the introduction of WorkChoices and Australian Workplace Agreements as a factor in increasing the gender pay gap. One participant commented that the abolition of the "no disadvantage" test "has meant that women's wages have gone backwards." 27

A women's service provider commented that women generally fare better under collectively bargained agreements:

Women generally aren't as outspoken and assertive as men in negotiating their pay and conditions. If you look at AWAs the pay gap is bigger [than in certified agreements]. If you are a woman ... struggling to get back into work, you are unlikely to be asking for paid maternity leave or time off for school holidays. 28

One woman noted that for women from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds, the individual negotiation process could be more difficult:

It is possibly worse for migrant and refugee women. Culturally, we don't feel we can negotiate for pay. It's very rare. 29

A participant in a focus group said that when women are more assertive or "masculine" in a negotiation they are labelled as "hard" or a "lesbian". Despite this, she said that she "goes in hard" when negotiating and "tells [the employer] what [she's] worth". 30

Pay inequity is influencing choices about paid and unpaid work within families

Many women and men said that decisions about sharing paid work and family responsibilities are borne out of financial necessity; they are largely determined by who has the greater earnings or earning potential in the relationship.

One man recounted his own experience:

Doing the sums of child care can make it more economical for my wife to stay at home because she earns less than I do. 31

One service provider noted that closing the gender pay gap is critical for creating an environment where men can undertake greater caring responsibilities:

More and more blokes want to care for their children, but financially they are not making that decision because men are earning more. They are the breadwinners. If you do equalise women and men's pay it will create opportunities for men to do that. 32

3.2.2 Research and literature

The following research projects were brought to the attention of the Commissioner during the Listening Tour.

Institutional effects on pay equity and pay inequity in emerging industries

Meg Smith at the University of Western Sydney is currently undertaking research in the area of gender pay equity and institutional explanations for the undervaluation of feminised work. Her research sets out to highlight the influence of industrial relations institutions in the shaping of pay inequity. Her more recent collaborative research projects have focused on the production of pay inequity in newly emerging industries and occupations, as well as the development of a methodology for better recognition of the skills in service work. 33

3.2.3 The gender pay gap in Western Australia

This independent review of the gender pay gap in Western Australia (WA) was commissioned by the WA Minister of Employment and Consumer Protection. 34 The report covers recent research dealing with the gender pay gap, the capacity of the State Wage Fixing Principles to close the gap, the efficacy of voluntary strategies, the role of the Minimum Conditions of Employment Act 1993 (WA), and strategies for training. The report points to WA as having the largest gender pay gap of any state or territory in Australia. This gap has economic, social and political consequences for individuals, business and governments. The report identifies a number of causal factors contributing to the gap including: the nature of jobs and the type of employment in which women are concentrated and the lower level of earnings associated with these jobs; the value attached to jobs and skills associated with female labour; entrenched social norms that impact on wage determination; barriers to women juggling paid work and caring responsibilities, and the deregulation and decentralisation of wage determination.

3.2.4 Policy and project ideas

The following policy and project ideas were suggested by participants in the Listening Tour.

1. Consideration should be given to a differential tax rate for women and men in recognition of the gender pay gap and women's role in caring for children. 35
2. Skills in salary negotiation should be taught at university. 36
3. There should be an inquiry into work value examining why is it that the care industries are viewed as 'unskilled' and considering the value of part time and flexible work. 37
4. Pay equity clauses should be included in work agreements. 38
5. Increase minimum wages and conditions and make sure they are enforced. 39
6. Aim to close the gender pay gap for Average Hourly (Non-managerial) Earnings. This will require an overhaul of industrial relations guidelines, perhaps as part of the revision of WorkChoices, so that women's work is valued equally. 40
7. Service industries should be provided with guidelines, possibly enforceable, for how employees should be paid, depending on experience, and on training requirements for staff. These industries employ many women, often as casual employees, and may not increase the pay of employees as they gain experience nor provide training for better-paid positions. 41
8. Reporting requirements under the Equal Opportunity for Women in the Workplace Act 1999 (Cth) should be expanded from employers of 100 or more employees to include employers of 50 or more employees. 42

3.3 Superannuation and retirement savings

3.3.1 What we heard

The gender gap in retirement savings and superannuation resonated strongly as an issue with participants in public consultations and focus groups. Many women identified with our case study, Margaret's story, which described a woman who moved in and out of paid work due to caring responsibilities, and was required to move out of her house due to financial pressures later in life. 43 Stories about older women living in poverty due to minimal retirement savings and the inadequacy of the age pension were common. Young women commented on their lack of awareness about the importance of superannuation. Some women reported using the co-contribution scheme, designed by the federal Government to support low income workers, while others could not afford to make the contributions that would garner matching government funds. 44

Women are justifiably anxious about living in poverty in later years

Many women identified strongly with Margaret's story, revealing their own anxieties about their retirement savings and identifying the lack of societal value placed on unpaid work as an explanation for their vulnerable financial status.

One woman from Hobart shared her story:

I'm in a similar situation to Margaret and I have anxiety too. I was in the paid workforce which I left five years ago to care for my disabled husband. I'm a nurse and with nursing comes extreme pressures. It's a double whammy with pressure because of the type of work and [the] pressure of [the] caring role. [The future of [my] work is an on-going financial issue for me, like Margaret. I just downgraded to a shack and without my faith I would not be here. When family is unwell, women can't work and we have to remember that many may not always wish to work. 45

A 60 year old woman from Canberra also expressed her anxiety:

I am freaking out about retirement. After three months in hospital and enormous medical bills I had to start again. 46

A union official highlighted the financial pressures that prevent women from contributing extra payments towards their superannuation:

The first priority for people is to pay back the HECS debt, then to pay for a house. It's very difficult to get people to contribute to superannuation. Many women who are eligible for [the government] co-contribution [scheme] cannot afford to co-contribute so women have actually missed out on this incentive. Many women have an income so far behind the threshold that they are not getting the breaks. 47

The increasing casualisation of the workforce, and women's overrepresentation in this kind of work was also noted as a contributing factor to the gender gap in retirement savings with many women earning below the threshold for the co-contribution scheme. 48

Women working on farms were seen to be particularly vulnerable to poverty in later years with all joint assets tied up in the farm, leaving women with no financial security if they separate from their partners. In regional South Australia one woman noted:

In relationships there seems to be an unconscious transition towards being totally dependent on the other party. On the farm, tradition sees farms left to boys in the family or in a marriage the farm is often not in her name. Everything is in the name of farm and all money and assets tied up in the farm. If the couple splits, the women usually end up with nothing. 49

One man argued that the gender gap in women's superannuation gap is to be expected and should be compensated for by women's financial choices early in life:

[Women w]ill always have an interruption to [their] earning capacity ... but you would have hoped they'd make better use of an earning period of time before starting a family. 50

Women's past exclusion from superannuation schemes is still impacting on their retirement savings

One woman reminded us of the history of women's exclusion from superannuation schemes, which is still impacting on some groups of women:

When I worked years ago men could join the super fund but women couldn't. My husband said, "Don't worry about super because you'll be leaving [the paid workforce] soon". Then my marriage fell apart and I was left with no superannuation because all the money had gone into the house instead. I left after 15 years in the paid workforce with nothing, no superannuation, a bit of long service leave. I didn't get the same wage as the males yet I was expected to take on more secretarial work. That is the way the work was structured. Everyone worries about retirement savings but let's remember we were not invited to join the super fund until 25 years ago. 51

One participant said that past superannuation rules and indirect discrimination against women has left many women with no choice but to extend their working lives:

I think so many of the grandmothers are working to a far greater age than they were before. [In the past, e]very time you got pregnant, you got your superannuation paid out. There was no compulsory superannuation, so you only got to do it by invitation. 52

Another woman pointed out the effects of multiple hurdles for some women, of past exclusion from paid work and superannuation combined with health issues:

I'm seventy three, was a teacher, had superannuation, then got married and had to retire. When I rejoined teaching after 10 years, I could get superannuation. But some couldn't get it because of health. That was thirty years ago, and so now, they are not able to live on the money that they have. 53

Women's work as carers is not socially and economically valued

Participants said that linking superannuation to paid work sends a strong message that unpaid caring work is not valued by society. 54 There was a strong view that the system needed to reflect the value of unpaid work to society.

Many women pointed to the lack of social and economic value placed on unpaid work.

[Margaret's] story resonates very strongly. What are the factors impacting [on women's poor financial status in retirement]? Public discourse doesn't value women's work. [There is n]o economic value [put] on homekeeping or mothering. We are told we don't work because we are not in paid work. Women like Margaret do the best that they can do -- sending her son to university despite her personal costs. But what are the costs to society? 55

Some participants raised concerns about the superannuation system being linked to paid work, thereby disadvantaging unpaid carers:

We need to recognise unpaid carers - what about their superannuation? The policy of human rights needs to also focus on people who are not in paid work. We are talking about one in eight Australians. 56

Women are working longer to accumulate adequate retirement savings

Many women said that they were working longer to support themselves financially in retirement. This is impacting on the health and wellbeing of older women who find themselves under pressure to earn an income to pay for housing and other living expenses.

One woman shared her story of needing to work much longer in an attempt to secure her financial future:

As a baby boomer approaching retiring age and having spent most of my years raising children, I have very little hope of retiring and will need to work for as long as possible. I will not be independent financially. Many women I know are the main income earner, sometimes this will be off farm income in order to maintain the family farm and lifestyle due to drought or because they may have a husband with a disability. The pressure is really on women who have not been high income earners and the outlook for the future is bleak. I see many tired women who are working fulltime, supporting husbands and trying to be a helpful grandparent. 57

One contributor to the Listening Tour blog explained the health impact of working long hours to meet her loan repayments in retirement, highlighting the inadequacy of the age pension:

Because I was unable to access superannuation funds through my work in earlier years I had to return to work at the age of 66, because I found it was impossible to maintain a house on my own and pay service bills etc. on the old age pension. I am now 72 [years] old and still working. I took out a $40,000.00 Home Equity loan (like reverse mortgage) ... before I was able to re-commence working. This loan is now charging 9.5% interest (compounding) and if I don't keep on working to pay the interest the bank will very quickly gobble up my home. I love my work and am dedicated to it - but long hours are having a deleterious effect on my health and the constant worry of not being able to meet the greedy interest rate payments is very stressful. ..Paying [a loan] back, out of a pension, is impossible - and women don't realise this until they have been forced in to the situation of using their only asset to try to achieve a liveable income. 58

Women are also working longer to help family members with their living expenses and are unable to save for their own retirement:

I talk to many women who can't retire when they thought they were going to be able to because of family transmitted debt. They are supporting kids through university and helping kids with a mortgage. With the cost of housing and university studies, older women can't save for their own retirement. 59

Employers also noted the rising trend of people staying on to work because they "haven't got a retirement nest egg built up". 60

However, not all women are able to supplement their retirement income by extending their time in the paid workforce. One participant highlighted the pressures on women between 40 and 60, who "have to leave the paid workforce because of caring for parents, and for grandchildren as well" which limits their retirement savings. 61

There are mixed views about the adequacy of the age pension

There were mixed views about the age pension with many women bringing attention the inadequacy of the payment while others looked forward to being able to receive it. One participant in the Brisbane community consultation reported that older women on the pension are really struggling financially, particularly with the rising cost of living. 62

A representative of the Women's Action Alliance (Victoria) raised her concerns about the adequacy of the age pension, particularly for single women:

I would like to draw your attention to the financial plight of single age pensioners, mostly women. On the death of a spouse, the age pension is slashed by 40 [per cent] even though their normal living costs barely change and may in fact increase. 63

This view was echoed by another service provider at the National Women's Secretariats in Canberra, who pointed out that "costs are fixed whether you are on a single or shared pension". 64

A contributor to the Listening Tour blog raised her concern about the tax disincentive to work while on the pension:

A single, age pensioner who does not own a home and must pay rent, simply cannot live on the pension. However, if you work, you lose 40 cents (like a tax) on every dollar you earn above $62 per week. 65

One woman brought attention to an issue of inequity in access to the pension for Indigenous women:

Given the shortened life expectancy for Aboriginal women, there is an issue around access to the age pension and superannuation. 66

A representative of the Older Women's Network in NSW suggested that the age pension could be the first time a woman receives independent income, allowing women in abusive relationships to leave their partner:

Many older women don't have super or savings. Retirement is a difficult time for those only on the pension. But the pension is equal between men and women. This allows those in abusive relationships to leave their partner after retirement as they have their own funds to live independently because they will be able to have access to money for the first time in their lives. 67

Some women working in low paid factory work said that they were looking forward to receiving the pension and wished that it would be available sooner:

It's not fair that women can only retire at 65 to get the pension. When we got older, we don't have the energy to do the hard work. The work that we do is heavy like cleaning. 68

Young women need increased education about superannuation

The need to educate young women about financial security and superannuation was raised a number of times throughout the Listening Tour as a way of redressing the gender gap in retirement savings. 69

One young woman spoke of her superannuation situation:

I don't even know who my super fund people are.... I know I've got about eight or nine different funds all around the place. And I got a letter at one point saying, "you've got money here". I'm like, "who are they?" And I've had letters saying, you had 500 dollars but because your scheme hasn't been used, we're taking that in admin fees. 70

In recognition of this issue, Unions ACT ran seminars for young women about superannuation and about combining jobs and Centrelink payments. They were targeted mainly to women working in low paid industries. 71

One woman supported broader access to financial advice in a blog entry:

[We need a] network of government-funded financial advisers who could analyse a woman's situation and advise her on how to organise her affairs in order to maximise her income in old age. The advisers would preferably be women with good communication skills (that is, who can put a case in plain English and make sure the client understands it). They would not recommend specific investments as commercial advisers on commissions do; rather, they would list the pros and cons of various alternatives. Such a system would:

1. inform women of their entitlements to government funding
2. enable them to maximise the return from funds/investments they control so as to obviate the need for government assistance; and
3. could help protect them from financial scams. 72

3.3.2 Research and literature

The following research projects were brought to the attention of the Commissioner during the Listening Tour.

Women's access to superannuation and retirement savings

Diana Olsberg reported on her research of the last twenty years examining women's access to superannuation and retirement savings. Although her earlier research influenced the policy of removing explicit discrimination in the superannuation system, her recent research has demonstrated that there is still a level of implicit discrimination due to the occupation-linked nature of the system. She is now doing work on ageing and housing and her research has identified female renters as in the most financially vulnerably position. 73

Women in Social and Economic Research (WiSER) at the Curtin University of Technology, Western Australia, have a strong research focus on the gender gap in retirement savings. 74 In particular, recent research conducted by Therese Jefferson highlights how Australia's superannuation system poses particular difficulties for women who have broken patterns of paid employment and relatively low wages. Economic simulations show that women in the baby boomer cohort will spend around 35 per cent less time in paid employment than their male counterparts. This will translate into a gender gap in compulsory accumulations of a similarly large magnitude. In addition, interview based studies reveal that many women are uncertain about how to save for retirement. For some, the problem is having too little money to participate in a savings scheme, while for others there is a real concern with 'how to get started.' 75

Financial literacy

This report, by the Victorian Women's Information and Referral Exchange, is based upon research involving over 300 women through a web based survey, focus groups and interviews. 76 The study sought to ascertain how Victorian women self assessed their financial literacy levels, and how these levels can be improved. The research found that for women, emotion, money and family were interconnected. Women were found to be generally fearful about money and there is a lack of confidence about how to access the financial market.

3.3.3 Policy and project ideas

The following policy and project ideas were suggested by participants in the Listening Tour.

Superannuation

1. A lump sum superannuation payment should be paid on the birth of a child, paid directly into a superannuation so that women will earn compound interest on the money. 77 Alternatively, some of the baby bonus could be put into a superannuation fund. 78
2. People who are getting welfare benefits should get an additional payment towards superannuation. 79
3. Educate girls at the school level about the importance of superannuation for financial security. 80
4. Employers could include an extra contribution to superannuation as part of a bonus or pay rise, benefiting both the employer and employee because of tax benefits. 81
5. Adopt a national goal of a achieving a universal basic income with superannuation. 82
6. Rethink the assumptions on which the current superannuation model is based. Instead of basing superannuation schemes on a man working full time for 35 years, increase the minimum contribution and reflect the casual and broken working patterns that are the reality of working lives. 83
7. Women should be able to contribute money towards superannuation when they are outside of the paid workforce undertaking caring responsibilities. 84

Age pension

8. The adequacy of the single pension needs to be reviewed as a measure to address the gender gap in retirement savings, with a view to increasing income for single aged pensioners without other income. 85
9. Age pensioners should be allowed to continue in work and earn the equivalent of the age pension, "not as a passive income from investments but as a productive, intelligent contributor to productivity". 86

Financial advice

10. Specialised financial planners are needed who will deal with specific issues facing women and who are not commissioned. 87

3.4 Low paid work

3.4.1 What we heard

For women in low paid work, adequate pay and conditions were of paramount concern. Women of Asian backgrounds working in highly casualised factory work raised the issue of poor hourly rates, with minimum conditions and little prospect of pay progression. Many women working in a range of low paid jobs do not get work breaks, annual leave or sick leave. Some women described a lack of simple measures in their workplaces, such as air-conditioning or a place to sit, that would make their working conditions more comfortable. Women who work from home in the clothing manufacturing industry get paid per garment with no superannuation. 88

Women, particularly migrant women, need more support and assistance over workplace issues

The Asian Women at Work Group highlighted their concern about the lack of formal support and assistance available to migrant women workers:

Many migrant women have no idea about where to go for information and assistance on issues we face in the workplace. Some women assume there is nothing they can do. Some women are used to enterprise unions and so if there is no union in their workplace they believe there is no union that can assist them. Some women do not know there are laws to protect them. Sometimes it is our English class teachers that we go to for help, but they often don't know where we can go for help either. 89

Women in low paid work need stronger minimum workplace conditions

Workplace and employment conditions were also primary concerns for workers in the aged care sector, a female dominated workforce. For example, women raised their concern about the lack of staff to patient ratios, which impacted upon their work intensity, stress and the quality of care. Time pressure and long hours were also identified as concerns with the example provided that workers often only had six minutes per patient every morning to get each person fed, washed, dressed and ready. This was because each worker was required to attend to 30 patients. Some women will often take on supervisor duties which require significantly more work for an extra $1 a week. 90

Women working in the aged care sector reported having little control over their hours of work. Many were employed as permanent part time, but working full time hours. These women explained that employers were reluctant to make them permanent full time because they didn't want to guarantee the extra hours. Women reported that if they are asked to work extra hours the onus is on them to request overtime rates. Otherwise, it is assumed that the employee agreed to work extra hours at the same rate and overtime payments are not paid. 91

One woman shared her experience of low pay and her difficulty in finding better quality work because of her age:

It is difficult to get more quality work because [I am] getting older. I am only getting $5 per hour, making uniforms at home. I asked my boss for a pay rise and [got] a rise [of] 20 cents per garment. I only get $5 per hour - I can do 25 garments an hour and I only make a piece of each garment. I don't get a pay slip. 92

Women on '457' working visas are particularly vulnerable workers

The Women's Employment Rights Project (WERP) at the Inner City Legal Centre voiced their concern about the conditions of women working on '457' visas. 93 They reported that these women often do not have workplace protections and are on statutory salaries under Australian Workplace Agreements with poor working and living conditions. Women on these visas are often unable to question their employer or make a complaint out of fear of their sponsorship being cancelled. This problem has been reportedly occurring mainly in the nursing industries. 94

3.4.2 Research and literature

The following research projects were brought to the attention of the Commissioner during the Listening Tour.

Causes, effects and responses to low pay in Australia

Helen Masterman-Smith and Barbara Pocock from the University of South Australia reported on their Low Pay Project which examines the dimensions, causes, effects and responses to low pay in Australia through quantitative and qualitative research. 95 The research identifies the characteristics of low paid work such as poor wages, limited control over hours of work, occupational health risks and a weak negotiating position. The research also exposes the impacts of low paid work such as financial and time poverty, poor health and psycho-social issues.

Women in the aged care sector

Sarah Kaine from the University of Sydney is currently conducting doctoral research examining employment relations in the aged care sector. Women make up 94 per cent of the caring workforce, so the research has a specific gender component. Her research has found that there has been an influx of migrant women from the garment industries and women falling under the Welfare to Work regime for entry level positions such as personal care assistants. She concludes that 'care' work continues to be 'invisible' and a possible explanation for this is the high representation of women in this sector. 96

WorkChoices and women in low income employment

Research conducted by the Women and Work Research Group at the University of Sydney examines the impact of WorkChoices on low paid women in New South Wales, and with a larger group, across Australia. 97 Amongst the findings of the research was that Work Choices was lowering wage rates, lowering employment security and reducing women's capacity to schedule hours. This was increasing dependence upon family members, male partners and welfare payments. The research showed that loss of control over hours directly undermined women's capacity to have a say over the balance between work and care in their lives. The researchers recommended that consideration be given to arrangements which would give women some capacity to control scheduling of hours. The system was especially difficult for women co-managing 'welfare to work' and WorkChoices.

Another report, published by the Centre for Work + Life at the University of South Australia, summarises the impact of WorkChoices on 120 Australian women in low paid employment. 98 The report, based on in-depth interviews, examines issues such as the workplace climate, pay and conditions, job security, work and family balance and pay equity. The report concludes that the system of WorkChoices is unbalanced and has a detrimental impact on women. A key recommendation of the report is to reinstate the right to unfair dismissal action.

3.4.3 Policy and project ideas

The following policy and project ideas were suggested by participants in the Listening Tour.

Education and information

1. Provide funding for Working Women's Centres and similar specialist centres as resource places for migrants to get information and assistance on their rights and responsibilities at work. 99
2. Provide education for low paid workers about rights, standards, responsibilities and Occupational Health and Safety. 100

Minimum workplace standards

3. Develop a Workplace Standard for acceptable and unacceptable workplace culture including practical measures such as access to toilets when needed, provision of toilet paper and facilities to prepare and reheat food; through to measures to overcome bullying and racial discrimination and promote cultural and religious acceptance. 101
4. Reinstate much broader minimum protections in the workplace to ensure wages and conditions are secure. 102
5. Repeal Work Choices and strengthen the award based industrial relations system to provide for adequate pay and decent working conditions including adequate minimum wages. 103
6. Introduce staff to patient ratios as part of the accreditation process for the aged care sector. 104

3.5 Women's workforce participation

3.5.1 What we heard

Paid employment was seen by participants as crucial for building women's economic independence. On the question of women's workforce participation one woman said:

I definitely see paid employment as important for building economic independence. Gone are the days where the male controls the money. More often women have their own bank accounts where we control our own money. 105

However, Listening Tour participants identified a number of barriers that exist for women's participation in the paid workforce, particularly for marginalised women, women in regional and remote areas and women returning to work after pregnancy.

Employers have also identified attracting and retaining women workers as an important business issue, particularly with the increasing skills shortage. One employer commented that currently a "serious talent pool gets excluded" which needs to be addressed in the interests of a thriving economy. 106

Women's work decisions are influenced by their social and professional development needs

An important point raised in a number of community consultations and focus groups was the motivators for women's workforce participation. A number of women said that paid workforce participation was an important aspect of their identity, provided a social network and allowed them to continue to develop professionally.

One man told the story of his partner's workforce participation:

My wife is the country manager for a software house. We had the option that either one of us could step out [of] paid employment for a period of time. But ... she loved the work, she enjoyed her work .... We had a routine where I would get up and get the kids ready and get them to day care and then my wife would basically pick them up in the afternoon. There wasn't really a purely financial decision, it was more around she would have gone mental ... after only a couple of months and going from a fairly high powered role to sitting at home, she was missing the interaction. 107

Women face barriers to continued workforce participation after a break to care for children

Many women commented on the difficulty of re-entering the paid workforce after a break to care for children. Issues raised included the availability of work at the same level, control over the hours of work, lack of family friendly workplace policies and the need for skills development. 108

One woman noted:

After children, women lack confidence to get back into the workforce, they have low self esteem, and [a lot has] changed since they were at work. We need to work on developing skills in return to work cases. 109

Another woman explained the experience of her social network in finding work at the same level after pregnancy:

I have a lot of friends who are professional women and who have had children. Overall, many are having trouble reengaging into work at the same level after having a baby. In most cases they have to take a step back to be able to find a job that fits in with their caring responsibilities. This is different for men at the same level. 110

There is a significant lack of opportunities for women in regional and remote areas

There was a clear message from women in regional and remote areas around the lack of opportunities to participate in the paid workforce. Other barriers to workforce participation in regional and remote areas include limited transport options and a lack of training and development opportunities.

One participant from a community consultation in regional South Australia commented on the experience of women in her community:

Young women with qualifications in maths and science get married to farmers but then find down the track that they can't get jobs in rural areas. They are in love and yearn for a career but can't have one. Then there's a frustration at the lack of opportunities. For many, they have to travel long distances such as one to two hours drive for jobs that are below their skills level. So they retrain or take a low paid job. 111

Women in Launceston, Tasmania recounted a similar experience:

There is also the issue for women trying to re-enter the workforce. So many of us are in service industries because of the lack of [other] opportunities. Skilled women are going back into the workforce after having children but working in jobs that don't use their skills because those positions aren't available in regional areas. 112

A participant in a men's focus group said that women's inability to find appropriate work put increased pressure on men in regional areas to be the primary breadwinner. Asked if there was one thing the Commissioner could do to make a difference one man suggested "more casual jobs for women so they can earn more money and go back to work and take the pressure off." 113

In remote communities, training and employment opportunities are extremely scarce. One issue is the lack of infrastructure to support training, education and employment. One woman in Fitzroy Crossing proposed a community 'shed' to allow women in the community to develop skills and start their own initiatives such as jewellery making, cooking and child care. She said that many women are bored and looking for opportunities. 114

There are specific barriers to workforce participation for immigrant and refugee women

Immigrant and refugee women indicated a number of specific barriers to workforce participation. These include the recognition of overseas qualifications, access to training and development and access to English classes. Race discrimination was also a common barrier to workforce participation. 115

When asked whether she would like to find a better job, one female factory worker of Asian background said:

Yes, I would. I wish that I could improve my English, and learn computer skills. I am over 50 but I still have time. I am not in the dark. 116

One service provider stressed the need for better access to English classes as a precursor to finding paid employment:

Migrant woman are highly dependent on Centrelink, and have no clue about how they will live in Australia in the future. All of them want to get English classes, and get into work. They are also the ones helping out in the community, so [the issues are] very complex. They are interested in things like catering but don't know how to get self-employed. There is no superannuation at all for these women. 117

African women noted their concern that women in their community often put time into developing submissions and providing input to government programs, however larger organisations are offered the government contracts and women in the community miss out on the employment opportunity. 118

There are specific barriers to workforce participation for Indigenous women

In metropolitan areas, Indigenous women raised the need for better support to get into jobs. Many of the jobs provided through the 'Workplace Ventures' program were in the hospitality industry and required shift work which is incompatible with managing family responsibilities. 119

Service providers reported that it is impossible to support families on the minimum wage, yet many Indigenous women are earning minimum wages due to a lack of education, training and employment opportunities. The loss of transport and health care benefits when they engage in paid work is also a significant disincentive to find work, particularly if there have children to support. 120

In remote areas, most employment opportunities are provided through the Community Development Employment Program (CDEP). For example in Fitzroy Crossing, CDEP provides many work opportunities for women in the community in areas such as community health work (including in first aid and environmental health), the women's resource centre, housing and community maintenance and adult education. 121 The pending termination of CDEP in a number of communities raised concerns amongst Indigenous women that it would reduce incomes and further limit employment opportunities.

3.5.2 Research and literature

The following research project was brought to the attention of the Commissioner during the Listening Tour.

The relationship between family tax benefits and women's labour force participation

Elizabeth Hill from the University of Sydney has conducted research to examine the relationship between the family tax benefit scheme and work disincentives to women's labour force participation. She has also studied the development of work and family policies and their impact on women's labour force participation. 122

3.5.3 Policy and project ideas

The following policy and project ideas were suggested by participants in the Listening Tour.

1. Examine the culture of employment to identify barriers preventing women's workforce participation and develop strategies for removing these barriers to allow women to get back in the workforce. 123
2. Review current family tax benefits with the aim of treating women as equal partners with reference to tax. 124
3. A joint project should be carried out by the Sex Discrimination Commissioner, the Race Discrimination Commissioner and the Disability Discrimination Commissioner to identify structural barriers to workforce participation for marginalised women. 125

3.6 Women and leadership

3.6.1 What we heard

There was a view that increasing the representation of women at the highest levels is needed to challenge and change the gendered culture of workplaces and institutions. 126 Participants identified a number of barriers to increased representation of women at senior levels including the availability of quality part time work, male oriented workplace cultures, and a lack of family friendly or flexible work conditions. 127 Indigenous women in particular need to be supported to move into leadership positions.

The fact that men tend to hold management positions in many female dominated industries was raised in a number of forums. 128 For example, in Tasmania women make up 70 per cent of the education sector but only 37 per cent of management. The representative union for teachers is advocating for skilling and training courses in management to address this disparity. 129

Employer and workplace attitudes are a barrier to women's leadership

A female participant pointed out the disparity in what employers say and what they do in terms of women's leadership:

[Our CEO] has publicly said he would have 50 per cent women in his work force if he could. But then he also set up an executive structure that is going to hinder his ability to get women into those senior positions by setting meeting times that women with caring responsibilities won't be able to attend. 130

Some women pointed to the fact that many male Baby Boomers or early Generation X "have been brought up in different generational circumstances where their mothers did not work" as an explanation for the continued lack of women in leadership roles. 131

One male participant noted that women's career progression is hindered by the emphasis on 'years of experience' which disadvantages women who are in and out of the paid workforce because of caring responsibilities:

[I]t's part of our own problem with our own mirror, looking at ourselves and saying, 'Well, is it all about experience, or is it more about capability of whoever can do the job?' So there's a couple of things there that are just traditional that we hang onto, which we have trouble with casting off. 132

Women may no longer be disadvantaged in accessing leadership positions

On the question of how to increase women's representation in senior levels, some people held the view it is a generational issue and will be fixed over time. One man commented:

I think the younger women that are coming out of school now, out of universities and through the system, are more confident to put their hand up for jobs that were traditionally male oriented. And I think engineering is a good example of that. When I went through school... the only women who were teaching at the school had home economics and maybe English, and maybe history. Now, when we look at the schools, there's a lot more women in the education system that are across all disciplines. 133

One male participant suggested that since the era of equal opportunity and diversity, employers are actively encouraged to advance women. He stated that "to be a female in the business world now ... is an advantage" and "there is a pressure on organizations now to advance women." 134

Indigenous women's leadership needs to be supported

Indigenous women's leadership is critical to the wellbeing of Indigenous communities as a whole. For example, in Fitzroy Crossing senior women in the community initiated a women's bush camp to discuss the issues facing the community and canvass potential solutions. The most recent bush camp resulted in three main objectives: a 12 month moratorium on the sale of take away alcohol, a stronger focus on the wellbeing of men and boys, and a better relationship with police. This leadership shown by women in the community has now led to significant changes in community health, levels of violence, school attendance and community morale. 135

Started by senior women from the Women's Resource Centre of Yirrikala in north-east Arnhem Land around 15 years ago, the Night Patrol now operates three vehicles which patrol the local area every night to provide safe transport for the community, protect people at risk of violence and defuse potentially violent incidents. One of the key factors contributing to the success of this patrol is the leadership shown by respected women in the community who have been the driving forces behind the initiative. The women who operate the patrol told us about the considerable change since the introduction of the permit system for the purchase of take away alcohol. Since, the permits were introduced; the streets have been notably quieter, with a marked decrease in alcohol-related problems. As with Fitzroy Crossing, this is another example of a women-led solution to a community problem. 136

3.6.2 Policy and project ideas

The following policy and project ideas were suggested by participants in the Listening Tour.

1. Women's leadership in corporate life should be promoted by demonstrating the benefits to business of women leaders. 137
2. Australia should follow the lead of the European Union and set a target for 40 per cent participation of women at all levels of implementing and managing research programs and should link this level of gender equity to university income as a performance measure under the Infrastructure Grant Scheme. 138
3. Require companies to keep statistics around women going on maternity leave and their career paths compared to men. These statistics should be given to governments and industry bodies to be published. 139
4. Provide a platform for Indigenous women to act as leaders by having their voices heard beyond their communities. 140

3.7 Sole parents and Welfare to Work

3.7.1 What we heard

The Australian government's Welfare to Work policy was brought up at a number of forums as further marginalising women who are already disadvantaged. The concerns raised include the difficulties in finding work to fit in with caring requirements, the rigidity and harshness of the system, and the combined impact with WorkChoices. 141

Welfare to Work amplifies poverty

One participant noted the way in which Welfare to Work amplifies poverty:

One of the issues is ... with the taper rates that women have to pay on every dollar they earn. This is the way the welfare system works creates poverty...it's very hard [for women] to advance. 142

The Working Women's Centre of South Australia reported that they were receiving many calls from women who had been notified that they must start looking for work. The Centre raised the issue of the limited availability of support services for women seeking employment and the lack of ability to claim prior learning or to pursue education to fit in with caring responsibilities. 143

Welfare to Work does not take into account different child care needs

The subject of the cost and availability of child care is a major concern for sole mothers getting back into the workforce under the Welfare to Work reforms. 144

Concerns were raised about the Welfare to Work reforms by Mudgin-Gal Aboriginal Women's Corporation. For grandmothers and mothers who have never worked in this community, the need to find work when the child turns six is a significant obstacle. The Corporation reported that the system does not take into account the unique caring and community responsibilities for Indigenous women, including the sharing of care within kinship circles. There are many instances where grandmothers and mothers are taking care of children both within and outside their immediate family. 145

Sole parents need special assistance to combine work and family responsibilities

One contributor to the blog highlighted the difficulties faced by sole parents at work and the need for particular consideration to allow them to combine work and family responsibilities:

Most of the comments I hear about are for married couples, and while it is tough for them, it is much tougher for sole parents, especially those who have no immediate family around for support. I really feel sole parents need that extra bit of consideration at work, similar to the same type of scheme which was used to help women advance in their careers (Affirmative Action). I feel that treating sole parents the same way as two-parent families (with up to twice the income) discriminates against them. For instance, in addition to being transferred to a location 70 km from where I lived, I was told that I could be rostered on any time between 8 am and 10 pm. I had to use public transport, and finishing work at 10 pm, I would not have been able to get home before 1 am, and by that time my children would have been alone for 10 hours, and without any meal. As it was, they were sometimes alone for 5 hours. I was always afraid that somebody would contact DOCS and say I was neglecting them, when I was trying to provide for them. The whole thing was a nightmare and I still have feelings of guilt and regret. 146

A sole parent at the Mackay community consultation also brought attention to the extra pressure felt by many sole parents juggling paid work and caring responsibilities:

I have to race home from work everyday to pick my daughter up from after school care and then, because I haven't had time after work, I have to spend Saturdays doing the shopping and other tasks. I don't have time to just hang out with my daughter. 147

3.7.2 Research and literature

The following research project was brought to the attention of the Commissioner during the Listening Tour.

The impact of Welfare to Work on sole parents in public housing

Sue Goodwin from the Faculty of Social Work at the University of Sydney reported on her research in the area of gender and social exclusion. Her current research is focussed on sole parents in public housing on Central Coast, examining the impact of the Welfare to Work changes. The research was borne out of concern from service providers about the number of sole parents not meeting the new requirements and not accessing information. Domestic violence and mental health issues have been experienced by many of the participants. A new program has been developed arising out of the research, Women in the Way, which aims to increase self confidence and job seeking skills for women. This course has had positive outcomes for women, particularly as many of the women would not otherwise have considered study at TAFE, but it is not counted toward study for Centrelink purposes. 148

3.7.3 Policy and project ideas

The following policy and project ideas were suggested by participants in the Listening Tour.

1. Freeze the suspension of payments program for 18 months to see whether it is necessary or whether enough assisted parents fill available suitable jobs. 149
2. Allow sole parents to use their time on income support payments to upgrade their education skills in tertiary and diploma level courses. 150
3. Introduce a system of affirmative action to overcome the many barriers preventing sole parents from succeeding at work. 151

3. 8 Housing

3.8.1 What we heard

Housing affordability was raised as growing concern for women's economic independence. The rising cost of housing with interest rate rises and the increase in rental prices is particularly affecting women on welfare, low paid women, Indigenous women, women with disabilities, migrant women and refugee women. 152

The cost of housing is a growing problem impacting upon women's economic independence

In the Perth community consultation, participants reported that the growing cost of housing with interest rate increases and shortages in the rental market was impacting upon women's economic independence, with many unable to meet loan or rental payments. We heard about the particular difficulties faced by low paid women and sole parents. 153

A male focus group participant shared his story, bringing attention to the financial and relationship pressures of repaying a mortgage:

We worked split shifts so we never saw each other. [I worked] 6am to 4pm, she'd work 4pm to 11pm. We both had to work because we had just got a new home and needed to. [We h]ad three kids - it got harder then. 154

In Mackay, Listening Tour participants suggested that the lack of affordable housing meant that women were staying in abusive relationships. 155

Women's lack of economic independence contributes to homelessness

The Women's Refuge Resource Centre in NSW said that their data from the last 12 years shows that 80 per cent of women who have young children or are pregnant are coming into refuges without any independent income. These women are struggling to find housing particularly in the context of rising housing costs. This is placing a strain on women's refuges because of the long waiting time for public housing. The Centre also commented that a major cause of homelessness in New South Wales is domestic violence. 156

Disadvantaged young women are at particular risk of homelessness

A visit to a young women's refuge in Tasmania brought to light the stories of a number of disadvantaged young women who are homeless or at risk of violence. These women often came from violent homes, had a history of drug and alcohol abuse and limited access to education or training opportunities.

I am 14 years old and living at Annie Kenney Young Women's refuge and this is my story. I never knew my Dad and always lived with my Mum. She got married when I was young to another guy. I was his little girl. I loved him a lot, but when he got drunk he would bash into my Mum until one day she had enough. And he went and got drunk and passed out in a gutter and got run over by a drink driver and died. I was so upset. Then me and my mum started to fight a lot. I tried to commit suicide. I tried hanging and overdosed 2 times - and then cutting instead of doing all of that. I started to smoke and me and Mum still kept fighting. I have moved out before to my cousin's but that didn't work, so I was cutting again and the fighting kept going - and smoking - and then one day I started to drink. So me and mum had a fight again and I moved out. If it wasn't for Annie Kenney I would be sleeping on a park bench. 157

There are particular difficulties in finding adequate housing for refugees

One service provider highlighted the particular housing problems for refugees, especially those on visas under the special humanitarian program. These refugees are unable to get health or housing support which places tremendous pressures on service providers. Women who bear the responsibility for managing household responsibilities with little support bear considerably greater difficulties. 158

There is a scarcity of appropriate and healthy housing in Indigenous communities

The lack of appropriate and healthy housing was a key issue raised during the Listening Tour in Fitzroy Crossing, Western Australia. There had been no major housing built in the region since the 1970s. The money that is provided to the local housing association does not include maintenance money, so nearly all of the houses are in ill repair and overcrowded. For example, one woman reported that she lives in a 'donga' (a tin shed) with 50 other people. All the men live in one end of the donga, and all the women live in the other end. There were lots of pools of water on the flooring and the roof was not properly attached. Service providers said that a lot of young people live in crowded housing with older people because there is simply nowhere for them to move to. It is also difficult to employ people to work in communities because of the scarcity of housing. 159

People from an Indigenous town camp community in Darwin reported that there were only 52 homes for a population of between 500 and 1000 people. Of these homes, only three have stoves that work. The public housing waiting time is usually 29 months and seven months if the situation is considered to be absolutely critical. 160

Services providers was reported a similar situation with housing for communities in north-east Arnhem Land. 161 Overcrowding combined with alcohol abuse his impacting upon women's safety in the community, putting them at greater risk of domestic violence. People also suggested that the condition of houses had an adverse impact on the health of community members. 162

Indigenous elders and students in Mackay also identified housing as a priority issue. Participants said that they had difficulty in finding both public and private housing, with the limited availability of public housing and steep prices of private housing. Some said that people attempting to find rental housing often experienced racial discrimination. 163

3. 9 Education, skills development and training

3.9.1 What we heard

Participants in the Listening Tour widely recognised the advances made in women's access to education and training. However, this remains a significant challenge for particular groups of women such as Indigenous women, migrant and refugee women, women in prison, welfare recipients and women with disabilities.

Another issue raised under this sub-theme was the ability of women, particularly mature age students, to pay off higher education loans.

Some programs successfully expand Indigenous people's access to education

Education opportunities were identified as extremely important for the economic status and wellbeing of Indigenous women. Yet there are significant cultural barriers to Indigenous women's access to mainstream education providers. One example of a successful program is a special block release course initiated by the University of Technology in Sydney and targeted to Indigenous people. The course requires one week of attendance, followed by learning support provided at home with a tutor and study groups. This assists students to manage family responsibilities, although the issue of child care during the week of class attendance is still an issue. Another positive aspect of this course is that its specific Indigenous focus encourages Indigenous people to apply. 164

Another example is the Mulka Project in Yirrikala, North East Arnhem which aims to build the skills of local young people by teaching them to use digital media to express their stories and ideas. At the school, there is a program for training the students in film and documentary production which runs up to Year 12. The Project has had difficulty keeping their graduates, who are being recruited by film producers around Australia. The project employed several high school students in school holidays. 165

In Fitzroy Crossing, the Adult Education Centre reported the highest demand for education in recent times. The Centre could keep another two staff occupied full time to meet the needs of the community. Education needs tend to be responsive to immediate requirements of community members such as assistance with drivers license and job applications, rather than long term career planning. 166 Parenting skills for young mothers is another area of identified need. 167 The attraction and retention of teachers is a key issue in providing quality education in these schools. 168

Indigenous students in Mackay reported experiences of racism from TAFE teachers on a daily basis. One participant said, "Some teachers put us down. They don't think we can achieve [in education] because we are black". Another student said that her teacher told her that she will not get into university and will get pregnant soon. 169

Migrant and refugee women need further education to support their workforce participation and career progression

Access to education was also raised as a significant issue for refugee and migrant women, particularly as a strategy for increasing their workforce participation and career progression. One woman shared her experience of the Australian education system as an African refugee:

Refugee African women are not entitled to HECS. Previously, when I had a concession card, I could apply for education, but the regulations are changing every year. When I started, I only had to pay about $120. It was a bit easier for TAFE, but at the moment, you can't get into TAFE. I did a Diploma for two years and a half. But in the last year, I had to pay $600. 170

For many migrant women, access to English is a priority to allow them to communicate in their workplaces, understand their rights and obligations and to open up further education options to facilitate career progression. Asian Women at Work report that there is a lack of accessible English classes for working women which limits their work options for the future. 171

Women in prison are particularly disadvantaged in accessing education, training and employment

In their submission to the Listening Tour, the Australian Federation of University Women noted the particularly disadvantaged position of women in prison in relation to education, training and employment opportunities.

While training and education are theoretically provided to women in prison, the majority of women prisoners are on remand or are serving short-term sentences, which may make them ineligible for training inside the prison. 172

Welfare recipients with caring responsibilities face difficulties in accessing education

A number of Listening Tour participants brought attention to the Welfare to Work reforms and the capacity of people on welfare such as sole parents to access tertiary study. Under the reforms, part-time study, which would be the most appropriate for individuals with caring responsibilities, is not recognised as meeting their minimum work requirements. This presents a significant barrier for those who are wishing to build their skills to re enter the workforce. 173

Women take longer to pay off higher education debts

Another factor that impacts on women's economic independence is the cost of higher education and the ability of women to pay off higher education (HECS/HELP) debts. The Australian Federation of University Women drew attention to the inequity of the system, where due to women's lower overall pay, it take longer to pay off the debt. Mature age students, especially those with caring responsibilities, are faced with the prospect of significant debts over a period of time if they wish to pursue tertiary study. 174 These students require extra support to manage their caring responsibilities with study commitments. 175

One woman recounted her experience in an email to the Commissioner:

One issue that has been of concern to myself, and I imagine other university educated women is the payment of HECS fees. My story is that I returned to university later in life and having completed my degree last year I now find myself pregnant with my first child. As I wish to remain at home to raise my child until they enter formal schooling I will be out of the work force for at least 5 years. During this time my HECS debt will increase, with no ability for me to pay this debt off. Like the inherent discrimination within the superannuation system, it appears that the HECS system faces similar issues, especially for mature age students. 176

3.9.2 Research and literature

The following research projects were brought to the attention of the Commissioner during the Listening Tour.

Women and vocational education and training

The organisation Women in Adult and Vocational Education have released a report that focuses on women and girls to identify priority areas and accommodate diverse perspectives and needs of women in Vocational Education and Training (VET). 177 It highlights the need for expanded opportunities for technical and trade training for girls and women in areas of skills shortages, increased funding for training opportunities for Indigenous women and more training places targeting women in low paid casualised jobs. It recommends the endorsement and implementation of VET equity related principles for women, key performance indicators, a specific women's policy and an incentive program for women.

Women and work related learning

Another report by Women in Adult and Vocational Education is based on a number of smaller research projects designed to provide snapshots of different groups of women within the area of work related learning, with particular reference to women who are not well served through the current Vocational Education and Training (VET) system. 178 The research reports on the aspirations for paid work, educational requirements, experiences of education and available support for five groups of women: young women and girls, Indigenous women, women from low socio-economic backgrounds, women and micro and small business and women retraining and returning to work.

Young pregnant women and education

The Association of Women Educators, in the report 'Present, Proud and Pregnant', examines the issues surrounding young pregnant women and their access to education. The report discusses research on young mothers and provides an overview of how education systems are responding to the issues. The author recommends a range of strategies that educational institutions can adopt to retain pregnant women and young mothers in schools. 179

3.9.3 Policy and project ideas

The following policy and project ideas were suggested by participants in the Listening Tour.

1. Access to English classes in the workplace should be improved. The Workplace English Language and Literacy Program, through which workers can access classes in their workplaces, is a highly regarded program but few employers are taking it up. Provide incentives for employers to set up English language classes. 180
2. Community Groups should be able to access funding to run English classes close to workplaces, before or after working hours. 181
3. The Higher Education Loan Program should be expanded to help women achieve their full educational and employment potential. 182
4. The quality and availability of education programs for women prisoners should be reviewed and improved. 183

3.10 Bibliography

Asian Women at Work Action Group, 'Workplace Issues for Migrant Women Workers and Responses Needed from Federal Government' (2007)

Austen, Siobhan, Jefferson, Therese and Preston, Alison 'Women and Australia's Retirement Income System' (2002) <http://www.cbs.curtin.edu.au/files/Women_and_Australia_s_Retirement_Income_System.pdf> at 14 April 2008

Austen, Siobhan, Jefferson, Therese and Sharp, Rhonda, 'Introduction to the Special Issue on Retirement Incomes in Australia' (2007) 10(2) Australian Journal of Labour Economics

Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Labour Market Statistics, April 2008, Cat. 6105.0 (2008)

Australian Bureau of Statistics, Average Weekly Earnings, Australia, February 2008, Cat no. 6302.0 (2008)

Australian Federation of University Women Inc., 'March 2008 Submission to the Sex Discrimination Commissioner' (2008)

Boulden, Kay 'Present Pregnant and Proud: Keeping pregnant students and young mums in education' (Association of Women Educators, 2000)

Butler, Elaine 'Towards a sustainable economic future: Women and vocational education and training' (Women in Adult and Vocational Education, 2007)

Elton, Jude, Bailey, Janis et al, 'Women and WorkChoices: Impacts on the Low Pay Sector. Summary Report. ' (Centre for Work + Life, University of South Australia, 2007)

Clare, R 'Are retirement savings on track?' (The Association of Superannuation Funds of Australia Limited 2007)

Cooper, Rae Baird, Marian and Oliver, Damian 'Down and Out with Work Choices: The Impact of Work Choices on the Work and Lives of Women in Low Paid Employment' (Women and Work Research Group, University of Sydney, 2007)

Hill, Elizabeth 'Summary of research for Sydney Academic Roundtable' (University of Sydney, 2007)

Jefferson, Therese 'Discussing retirement: Insights from a Qualitative Research Project' (2007) 10(2) Australian Journal of Labour Economics 129

Kelly, S 'Entering Retirement: the Financial Aspects' (Paper presented at the Communicating the Gendered Impact of Economic Policies: The Case of Women's Retirement Incomes, Perth, 12-13 December 2006)

Sharp, Rhona and Austen, Sibhoan 'The 2006 Federal Budget: A Gender Analysis of the Superannuation Tax Concessions' (2007) 10(2) Australian Journal of Labour Economics 61

Todd, Trish and Eveline, Joan 'Report on the Review of the Gender Pay Gap in Western Australia' (School of Economics and Commerce, The University of Western Australia, 2004)

Turner-Zeller, Kimberley and Butler, Elaine 'Lifelong Learning: Work related education and training Meeting the needs of Australian Women' (Women in Adult and Vocational Education, 2007)

Women's Electoral Lobby Australia Inc., '2007 Federal Election: the Issues at Stake' (2007)

Women's Information and Referral Exchange Inc., 'Women's Financial Literacy Research Report' (Women's Information and Referral Exchange Inc., 2007)

^top

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[4]Tamara, Blog entry (2008) Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission Listening Tour website at 21 March 2008

[5]Australian Bureau of Statistics, Average Weekly Earnings, Australia, February 2008, Cat no. 6302.0 (2008)

[6]Australian Bureau of Statistics, Average Weekly Earnings, Australia, February 2008, Cat no. 6302.0 (2008)

[7]Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Labour Market Statistics, April 2008, Cat. 6105.0 (2008)

[8]Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Labour Market Statistics, April 2008, Cat. 6105.0 (2008)

[9]R Clare, 'Are retirement savings on track?' (The Association of Superannuation Funds of Australia Limited 2007)

[10]S Kelly, 'Entering Retirement: the Financial Aspects' (Paper presented at the Communicating the Gendered Impact of Economic Policies: The Case of Women's Retirement Incomes, Perth, 12-13 December 2006)

[11]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Canberra Community Consultation' (2008)

[12]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 6 (2008)

[13]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 6 (2008)

[14]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Mackay Community Consultation, Queensland' (2008)

[15]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with Unions Tasmania' (2007)

[16]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 5 (2008)

[17]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 7 (2008)

[18]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Adelaide Community Consultation' (2007)

[19]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 7 (2008)

[20]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 7 (2008)

[21]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Men's focus group 4' (2008)

[22]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Men's focus group 5' (2008)

[23]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Men's focus group 5' (2008)

[24]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 3 (2007); Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Salisbury City Community Consultation, South Australia' (2007)

[25]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Salisbury City Community Consultation, South Australia' (2007)

[26]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Launceston Chamber of Commerce Business Roundtable' (2007)

[27]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Melbourne Community Consultation' (2008)

[28]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Darwin Community Consultation (2008)

[29]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 5 (2008)

[30]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 8 (2008)

[31]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Men's focus group 3' (2007)

[32]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Darwin Community Consultation (2008)

[33]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Notes from Sydney Academic Roundtable, co hosted by Women and Work Research Group,' (2007)

[34]Trish Todd and Joan Eveline, 'Report on the Review of the Gender Pay Gap in Western Australia' (School of Economics and Commerce, The University of Western Australia, 2004)

[35]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Adelaide Community Consultation' (2007)

[36]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Adelaide Business Consultation (2007)

[37]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'NSW Peak Women's Roundtable' (2007)

[38]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Sydney Community Consultation' (2007)

[39]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Perth Community Consultation' (2008)

[40]The Australian Federation of University Women Inc., 'March 2008 Submission to the Sex Discrimination Commissioner' (2008)

[41]The Australian Federation of University Women Inc., 'March 2008 Submission to the Sex Discrimination Commissioner' (2008)

[42]The Australian Federation of University Women Inc., 'March 2008 Submission to the Sex Discrimination Commissioner' (2008)

[43]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Listening Tour website (2007) http://www.humanrights.gov.au/listeningtour/themes.html at 14 May 2008

[44]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 6 (2008)

[45]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Hobart Community Consultation' (2007)

[46]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Canberra Community Consultation' (2008)

[47]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with Unions Tasmania' (2007)

[48]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with National Women's Secretariats' (2007)

[49]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Murray Bridge Community Consultation, South Australia' (2007)

[50]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Men's focus group 5' (2008)

[51]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 7 (2008)

[52]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 6 (2008)

Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Launceston Community Consultation' (2007)

[53]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Older people's focus group' (2008)

[54]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Mackay Community Consultation, Queensland' (2008)

[55]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Perth Community Consultation' (2008)

[56]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Perth Community Consultation' (2008)

[57]Anonymous, Blog entry (2007) Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission Listening Tour website at 18 December 2007

[58]Anonymous, Blog entry (2007) Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission Listening Tour website at 14 December 2007

[59]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Sydney Community Consultation' (2007)

[60]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Adelaide Business Consultation (2007)

[61]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Older people's focus group' (2008)

[62]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Brisbane Community Consultation' (2008)

[63]Letter from Women's Action Alliance (Victoria), to Elizabeth Broderick, 21 January 2008

[64]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with National Women's Secretariats' (2007)

[65]Maggie, Blog entry (2008) Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission Listening Tour website at 8 February 2008

[66]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with Mudgin-Gal Aboriginal Women's Corporation, Redfern, NSW' (2007)

[67]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Sydney Community Consultation' (2007)

[68]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 2 (2007)

[69]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Brisbane Community Consultation' (2008)

[70]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 1 (2007)

[71]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Canberra Community Consultation' (2008)

[72]Susan, Blog entry (2007) Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission Listening Tour website at 5 December 2007

[73]Diana Olsberg, 'Summary of research findings for Sydney Academic Roundtable' (University of NSW, 2007); Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Notes from Sydney Academic Roundtable, co hosted by Women and Work Research Group,' (2007);

[74]Therese Jefferson, Siobhan Austen and Alison Preston, 'Women and Australia's Retirement Income System' (2002)   <http://www.cbs.curtin.edu.au/files/Women_and_Australia_s_Retirement_Inc…; at 14 April 2008; Rhonda Sharp and Siobhan Austen, 'The 2006 Federal Budget: A Gender Analysis of the Superannuation Tax Concessions' (2007) 10(2) Australian Journal of Labour Economics 61; Therese Jefferson, Siobhan Austen and Rhonda Sharp, 'Introduction to the Special Issue on Retirement Incomes in Australia' (2007) 10(2) Australian Journal of Labour Economics ; Therese Jefferson, 'Discussing retirement: Insights from a Qualitative Research Project' (2007) 10(2) Australian Journal of Labour Economics 129

[75]Therese Jefferson, 'Discussing retirement: Insights from a Qualitative Research Project' (2007) 10(2) Australian Journal of Labour Economics 129

[76]Women's Information and Referral Exchange Inc., 'Women's Financial Literacy Research Report' (Women's Information and Referral Exchange Inc., 2007)

[77]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Salisbury City Community Consultation, South Australia' (2007)

[78]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Launceston Community Consultation' (2007)

[79]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Launceston Community Consultation' (2007)

[80]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with Unions Tasmania' (2007); Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Perth Community Consultation' (2008)

[81]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with Unions Tasmania' (2007)

[82]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Melbourne Community Consultation' (2008)

[83]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Perth Community Consultation' (2008)

[84]Queensland Public Sector Union, 'Submission to the "Listening Tour" with Sex Discrimination Commissioner, Elizabeth Broderick' (2008)

[85]The Australian Federation of University Women Inc., 'March 2008 Submission to the Sex Discrimination Commissioner' (2008)

[86]Maggie, Blog entry (2008) Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission Listening Tour website at 8 February 2008

[87]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 3 (2007).

[88]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 2 (2007)

[89]Asian Women at Work Action Group, 'Workplace Issues for Migrant Women Workers and Responses Needed from Federal Government' (2007)

[90]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 6 (2008)

[91]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 6 (2008)

[92]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 2 (2007)

[93]Migration Regulations 1994  (Cth) sub-reg 457

[94]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'NSW Peak Women's Roundtable' (2007)

[95]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Adelaide Academic Roundtable co-hosted by the Centre for Work and Life, University of South Australia' (2007)

[96]Sarah Kaine, 'Summary of research for Sydney Academic Roundtable' (University of Sydney, 2007)

Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Notes from Sydney Academic Roundtable, co hosted by Women and Work Research Group,' (2007)

[97]Marian Baird, Rae Cooper and Damian Oliver, 'Down and Out with Work Choices: The Impact of Work Choices on the Work and Lives of Women in Low Paid Employment' (Women and Work Research Group, University of Sydney, 2007); Rae Cooper, 'Summary of research for Sydney Academic Roundtable' (University of Sydney, 2007); Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Notes from Sydney Academic Roundtable, co hosted by Women and Work Research Group,' (2007)

[98]Janis Bailey, Jude Elton et al, 'Women and WorkChoices: Impacts on the Low Pay Sector. Summary Report. ' (Centre for Work + Life, University of South Australia, 2007); Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Adelaide Academic Roundtable co-hosted by the Centre for Work and Life, University of South Australia' (2007)

[99]Asian Women at Work Action Group, 'Workplace Issues for Migrant Women Workers and Responses Needed from Federal Government' (2007)

[100]Asian Women at Work Action Group, 'Workplace Issues for Migrant Women Workers and Responses Needed from Federal Government' (2007)

[101]Asian Women at Work Action Group, 'Workplace Issues for Migrant Women Workers and Responses Needed from Federal Government' (2007)

[102]Asian Women at Work Action Group, 'Workplace Issues for Migrant Women Workers and Responses Needed from Federal Government' (2007)

[103]Women's Electoral Lobby Australia Inc., '2007 Federal Election: the Issues at Stake' (2007)

[104]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 6 (2008)

[105]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 7 (2008)

[106]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Launceston Chamber of Commerce Business Roundtable' (2007); Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Melbourne Business Roundtable' (2008); Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Adelaide Business Consultation (2007)

[107]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Men's focus group 3' (2007)

[108]See ‘Balancing Work and Family over the Life Cycle' for further findings on this topic.

[109]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Murray Bridge Community Consultation, South Australia' (2007)

[110]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Darwin Community Consultation (2008)

[111]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Murray Bridge Community Consultation, South Australia' (2007)

[112]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Launceston Community Consultation' (2007)

[113]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Men's focus group 1' (2007)

[114]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Fitzroy Crossing Community Consultation' (2008)

[115]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Mackay Community Consultation, Queensland' (2008); Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'NSW Peak Women's Roundtable' (2007); Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 5 (2008).

[116]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 2 (2007)

[117]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with National Women's Secretariats' (2007)

[118]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 5 (2008)

[119]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with Mudgin-Gal Aboriginal Women's Corporation, Redfern, NSW' (2007)

[120]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with Mudgin-Gal Aboriginal Women's Corporation, Redfern, NSW' (2007)

[121]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with Nindilingarri Cultural Health Services, Fitzroy Crossing' (2008)

[122]Elizabeth Hill, 'Summary of research for Sydney Academic Roundtable' (University of Sydney, 2007)

Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Notes from Sydney Academic Roundtable, co hosted by Women and Work Research Group,' (2007)

[123]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Adelaide Community Consultation' (2007)

[124]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with National Women's Secretariats' (2007)

[125]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with National Women's Secretariats' (2007)

[126]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Salisbury City Community Consultation, South Australia' (2007); Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 3 (2007)

[127]For a more detailed discussion of these issues please see ‘Balancing Work and Family over the Life Cycle'.

[128]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 6 (2008)

[129]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with Unions Tasmania' (2007)

[130]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 4 (2008)

[131]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 3 (2007)

[132]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Men's focus group 4' (2008)

[133]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Men's focus group 4' (2008)

[134]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Men's focus group 5' (2008)

[135]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Fitzroy Crossing Community Consultation' (2008)

[136]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with Yirrikala Night Patrol' (2008)

[137]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Melbourne Community Consultation' (2008)

[138]The Australian Federation of University Women Inc., 'March 2008 Submission to the Sex Discrimination Commissioner' (2008)

[139]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Darwin Community Consultation (2008)

[140]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with Mudgin-Gal Aboriginal Women's Corporation, Redfern, NSW' (2007)

[141]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Perth Community Consultation' (2008); Women's Electoral Lobby Australia Inc., '2007 Federal Election: the Issues at Stake' (2007)

[142]Adelaide community consultation

[143]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with Working Women's Centre of South Australia' (2007)

[144]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Hobart Community Consultation' (2007)

[145]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with Mudgin-Gal Aboriginal Women's Corporation, Redfern, NSW' (2007)

[146]Nella, Blog entry (2007) Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission Listening Tour website at 5 December 2007

[147]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Mackay Community Consultation, Queensland' (2008)

[148]Sue Goodwin, 'Summary of research for Sydney Academic Roundtable' (2007)

Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Notes from Sydney Academic Roundtable, co hosted by Women and Work Research Group,' (2007)

[149]Women's Electoral Lobby Australia Inc., '2007 Federal Election: the Issues at Stake' (2007)

[150]Women's Electoral Lobby Australia Inc., '2007 Federal Election: the Issues at Stake' (2007)

[151]Nella, Blog entry (2007) Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission Listening Tour website at 5 December 2007

[152]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Perth Community Consultation' (2008)

[153]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Perth Community Consultation' (2008)

[154]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Men's focus group 2' (2007)

[155]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Mackay Community Consultation, Queensland' (2008)

[156]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'NSW Peak Women's Roundtable' (2007)

[157]Annie Kenney Young Women's Refuge, 'Story from a client' (2007)

[158]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Melbourne Community Consultation' (2008)

[159]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Fitzroy Crossing Community Consultation' (2008)

[160]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Bagot Community Consultation, Darwin' (2008)

[161]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with Laynhapuy Homelands Association' (2008)

[162]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Fitzroy Crossing Community Consultation' (2008); Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Bagot Community Consultation, Darwin' (2008);

[163]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with Indigenous elders and students, Mackay, Queensland' (2008)

[164]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with Mudgin-Gal Aboriginal Women's Corporation, Redfern, NSW' (2007)

[165]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with the Mulka Project, Yirrikala' (2008)

[166]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with Karrayili Adult Education Centre, Fitzroy Crossing' (2008)

[167]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Fitzroy Crossing Community Consultation' (2008)

[168]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with Marninwarntikura Women's Resource Centre, Fitzroy Crossing' (2008)

[169]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with Indigenous elders and students, Mackay, Queensland' (2008)

[170]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, Sex Discrimination Commissioner's Listening Tour - Women's focus group 5 (2008)

[171]Asian Women at Work Action Group, 'Workplace Issues for Migrant Women Workers and Responses Needed from Federal Government' (2007)

[172]The Australian Federation of University Women Inc., 'March 2008 Submission to the Sex Discrimination Commissioner' (2008)

[173]Letter from Women's Action Alliance (Victoria), to Elizabeth Broderick, 21 January 2008; Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Meeting with Working Women's Centre of South Australia' (2007)

[174]The Australian Federation of University Women Inc., 'March 2008 Submission to the Sex Discrimination Commissioner' (2008)

[175]Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 'Brisbane Community Consultation' (2008)

[176]Email to Elizabeth Broderick, 25 January 2008.

[177]Elaine Butler and Kimberley Turner-Zeller, 'Lifelong Learning: Work related education and training Meeting the needs of Australian Women' (Women in Adult and Vocational Education, 2007)

[178]Elaine Butler, 'Towards a sustainable economic future: Women and vocational education and training' (Women in Adult and Vocational Education, 2007)

[179]Kay Boulden, 'Present Pregnant and Proud: Keeping pregnant students and young mums in education' (Association of Women Educators, 2000)

[180]Asian Women at Work Action Group, 'Workplace Issues for Migrant Women Workers and Responses Needed from Federal Government' (2007)

[181]Asian Women at Work Action Group, 'Workplace Issues for Migrant Women Workers and Responses Needed from Federal Government' (2007)

[182]The Australian Federation of University Women Inc., 'March 2008 Submission to the Sex Discrimination Commissioner' (2008)

[183]The Australian Federation of University Women Inc., 'March 2008 Submission to the Sex Discrimination Commissioner' (2008)